Five Points of Architecture

Five Points of ArchitectureLe Corbusier is one of the most important designers from the twentieth century. He is known as one of the innovators of modern architecture due to many of his thoughts and‘recipes’within architecture. One of his most celebrated was  Ã¢â‚¬ËœThe Five Point of a New Architecture’that he had explained in ‘L'Esprit Nouveau’  and the book ‘  Vers une architecture’, which he had been developing throughout the 1920s. Le Corbusier’ development of this thought altered the architectural promenade in a new manner, which was presented in 1926. [ 1 ] The five points are as follows: pilotis, the roof garden, free program, free facade, and the horizontal window. Le Corbusier used these points as a structural footing for most of his architecture up until the 1950’s, which are apparent in many of his designs. The essay‘Les Cinq points d'une architecture nouvelle’by Le Corbusier focuses on inquiries that are raised within architectural design, proposing a foundation and agreement in it. Similar texts for illustration the advancement of‘cellule’and figures of the Maison Standardisee, do non hold relation to the design procedure of the five points. The Modulor, which is the survey of proportions of the human organic structure graduated table that is used as a system to be after a figure of Le Corbusier’s edifices, is another theoretical effort, which did non accomplish a proper relation to the design procedure and besides the architectural hunt for signifier that personifies the five points. On the other manus, these thoughts can be portrayed more freely as ‘merely theoretical ideas’ . [ 2 ] One exclusion is the construct of the tracis regulateurs ( modulating lines ) , which uses proportions of geometry in edifices. It predicted certain thoughts behind the five points in a figure of facets. The first point is the piloti, which are columns or wharfs that elevate a construction off the land. The fact that the construction is lifted provides many functional advantages. As the pilotis raise the edifice off the land, it allows circulation beneath the house, which frees the edifice site, and allows a private road, parking infinite, or a garden to be placed beneath the house. The pilotis provides many advantages, and besides new constructional possibilities. The artistic minutes every bit good as the drawn-out utility are the consequences of those‘recherches assidues’and those‘acquis de laboratoire’[ 3 ] . The same country is besides gained on the level roof. This country is known as the following point, which is the roof garden. This is to equilibrate the green country that was already used by the edifice and substituted it onto the roof, which is so used for domestic intents. Free program is the following point, which means the floor infinite can be arranged freely without the concern for back uping walls into suites. Replacing interior supporting columns from walls spliting the infinite, and traveling the construction of the edifice to the outside is a manner to accomplish this. Le Corbusier designed an unfastened floor construction called the Dom-ino house in which the theoretical account removed supporting wall and the back uping beams for the ceiling. This innovation was most unexpected at clip ; it was a‘forecast of the potencies of strengthened concrete, of mass-production, of human graduated table, of the modern mill.’ [ 4 ] The frame did non depend on the floor programs of the house, giving the designer freedom when planing the inside. Free facade is another point. It is the ability of planing the facade freely as the walls are non-supporting, which is the consequence of the free program. The following point is the horizontal window. This allows the facade to be cut along its full length. By making so it allows maximal light, better airing and besides gives positions of the environing pace, which is apparent in the Villa Savoye. The five points were demonstrated in many of Le Corbusier ‘s architecture throughout his calling. One of first designs that Le Corbusier attempted to include the points in was the Maisons Citrohan. The house was developed through different versions. Numerous elements of the houses design turned out to be indispensable factors, which make up Le Corbusiers manner. Certain features of the Maison Citrohan can be detected in most of the Villa in the 1920’s. [ 5 ] Maison Citrohan introduced the‘five points of new architecture’ .The house was elevated by pilotis leting free circulation on the land, and besides consisted of a reinforced-concrete frame construction, which was achieved from the Dom-ino’s constructional system. The unfastened infinite created by the pilotis and the level roof increases the little country that already exists. It besides had a roof garden/terrace. Le Corbusier voiced himself on the topic of the Maison Citrohan in the first volume of the‘Oevre compldte’:â€Å"Stuttgart, c'est I'occasion enfin! â€Å" .Le Corbusier did non talk of single objects or designs ; he talked about the changeless development of an thought stretched over many instances. [ 6 ] Le Corbusier studied the indispensable doctrines of Egyptian, Hindu, Byzantine, and Grecian architecture in‘Vers une architecture’ ,which is a aggregation of essays that supports survey of the construct of modern architecture. [ 7 ] Egyptian and Grecian architecture were peculiarly of import for Le Corbusier ‘s application of the five points. From Egyptian architecture, Le Corbusier acquired the thought of symmetricalness and repeat. In add-on, Le Corbusier obtained the impression of motion and reverses from Grecian architecture. The lesson of regular repeat from Egyptian architecture, as mentioned above, provided the thought of utilizing repeat in perpendicular supports that Le Corbusier would subsequently use to his architecture as â€Å" a changeless graduated table, a beat, a reposeful meter † . Le Corbusiers design theories were put in pattern to a certain degree within a figure of his designs such as the Maison Cook, the Villa Stein, and besides at the Villa Savoye. In these edifices‘the regular grid of columns served as a foil to the organic forms of the curving walls and stepss, which together combined to form a pleasant architectural promenade with unsymmetrically balanced views’harmonizing to the lessons of Grecian architecture. [ 8 ] Similar to the Citrohan House, the Villa Stein had a roof, which became a patio garden ; on a regular basis spaced structural wharfs, which allowed freely curved interior dividers, and besides horizontal Windowss that extended across frontages. The Maison Cook was a patio house. The upper floors of the house were supported by concrete piloti, and the land floor consisted of a unfastened program which had a parking infinite, entry, and a patio. The roof was besides used as a garden patio. Le Corbusier wanted to demo that the dividers of the suites on each floor were independent of structural supports, therefore the dividers were curved. [ 9 ] The Villa Savoye follows the five points best purely, and can be considered as a reinforced program of Le Corbusier’s five points. The exterior maintains the thought of symmetricalness as all four lifts are truly similar, which consist of horizontal Windowss and gaps running the breadth of the facade at the 2nd floor degree, supported by on a regular basis spaced pilotis. [ 10 ] Within the points, the free program is the most of import in the design, where the big wall curves freely between the pilotis on the land floor, which reflects the thought of the ‘free plan’ the strongest. Equally much as the five points have contributed to the development of modern architecture greatly, some points such as the horizontal Windowss are non necessary in footings of the designing of good architecture. Besides the thought of the roof garden has been criticised over the old ages for leaking, it besides would be considered really unusual in domestic houses in states such as the UK, as they use the more traditional pitched roof as it seems more homely. Furthermore, Le Corbusier abandoned the thought of the piloti shortly after some point ; his ulterior work does non purely follow the points. Le Corbusier’s‘Five Points in Architecture’pronunciamento, as explained above, has had great influence on modern architecture. This is apparent in The Villa Savoye, which summed up the five points, which turned out to be a chef-d'oeuvre of the twentieth century design and one of the greatest plants by Le Corbusier. The five points have allowed a broad assortment of thoughts and possibilities within planing architecture even to this twenty-four hours such as the usage of free facade in Zaha Hadid’s Performing Arts Center in Hague ( 2010 ).

Counselling Psychology Essay

During the history of psychology and counselling a wide range of attitudes and approaches have been developed in order to provide individuals with the ability to explore his or her inner world through varied strategies and modes of interaction. The aim was to increase the level of awareness as well as the level of motivation and changes (Sarnoff, 1960). According to Stefflre & Burks (1979), Counselling doesn’t just occur between two people, â€Å"it denotes a professional relationship between a trained counsellor and a client. This relationship is usually person-to-person, although it may sometimes involve more than two people†, it also focuses upon the stimulation of personal development in order to maximize personal and social effectiveness and to forestall psychologically crippling disabilities (p.14). For this assignment the Psychoanalytic Theoretical approach to Counselling will be examined, along with its theorist Sigmund Freud and the therapeutic techniques assoc iated with this theoretical approach. Before one can begin to explore techniques of psychoanalysis, it is important to briefly review Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the developmental personality and his stages of psychological development. Psychoanalytic theory and its practice originated in the late nineteenth century in the work of Sigmund Freud. According to Sarnoff (1960), psychoanalytic theory is considered to be the historical foundation of therapy. It describes the â€Å"mechanisms of ego defence which serve to protect the individual against external and internal threat† it also offers a distinctive way of thinking about the human mind and how it responds to psychological distress (p. 251). This theory has evolved into a complex, multifaceted and internally fractured body of knowledge situated at the interface between the human and natural sciences, clinical and counselling practice and academic theory. Therefore the term psychoanalysis refers to both Freud’s original attempt at providing a comprehensive theory of the mind and also the associated treatment (Wachtel & Messer, 1997, p.39-42). Freud viewed human nature as dynamic, that is, he believed in the transformation and exchange of energy withi n the personality. These dynamic concepts consist of instincts, libido, cathexis, anticathexis and anxiety and are related to the way one distributes psychic energy (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). In attempting to account for why human beings behave as they do, Freud invented the topographic and structural models of personality. The topographical model or â€Å"iceberg† of the mind was intended to help analysts understand how patients repress wishes, fantasies, and thoughts. In the topographical model, the mind is divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious systems (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.443-445). The conscious system includes all that we are subjectively aware of in our minds. The preconscious includes material that we are capable of becoming aware of, but do not happen to be aware of currently. According to Freud (as cited in Passer & Smith, 2007, p.444), the metaphor of â€Å"the psyche is like an iceberg† was proposed. Like an actual iceberg only the upper ten percent of it is visible or conscious and the rest is submerged and unseen below the water’s surface. So likewise, most human behaviour results from unconscious motivation, hence the unconscious system includes material that we have defensively removed from our awareness by means of repression and other defence mechanisms. So when unconscious materials attempt to enter the conscious level, a â€Å"censor† function (repression) pushes it back or lets it through in a disguised form (Ewen, 1992). As a result, counsellors try to move unconscious material to the preconscious and then to the conscious mind, to increase the patient’s self-awareness. With this model Freud realized that their was certain explanatory limitations, such as the model’s inability to account for certain forms of psychopathology and as a result developed an alternative that explained normal and abnormal personality development. This alternative is known as the structural model (Brammer, Shostrum & Abrego, 1989). According to Freud (as cited in Gladding, 2000, p.187-188), the structural model for psychoanalysis consists of three psychic structures the id, ego and superego, which differ in terms of power and influence. These parts symbolise the different aspects of a person’s personality. The id and superego are confined to the unconscious and the ego operates mainly in the conscious but also interacts with the preconscious and unconscious of the topographical model. The id which develops within the next three years of an individual’s life is the source of ones motivation, and includes sexual and aggressive drives. Sigmund Freud’s theory believed that both the sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do; it involves an analysis of the root cause or causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious mind’s rel ation to it. This id demands the satisfaction of the antisocial instincts and obeys an inexorable ‘pleasure principle’. The id is viewed as not having any logic, values or ethics, for example the id wants whatever feels good at a certain time (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). Therefore Freud saw that it was urgent to control the pleasure principle and he postulated that there must be a ‘super-ego’ to control the id. The ego can be viewed as the executive of personality; it consists of a group of mechanisms such as reality-testing, judgment and impulse control. It incorporates these techniques so it is able to control the demands of the id and of other instincts, becoming aware of stimuli, and serving as a link between the id and the external world (Pervin, Cervone & John, 2005). As an individual’s ego develops so does the perception of reality and a wider view beyond, the pleasures of subjective gratification, is attained. Therefore the pleasure principle that was devel oped by Freud was replaced by the reality principle (Garcia, 1995). As described by the psychoanalytic theory, the psychological conflict that the ego faces, in respect to dealing with the demands of the superego and the id, is an intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience. For example, if an individual is under pressure and the balance is tipped too far towards one element, thus creating excessive anxiety, the ego is forced to take extreme measures to relieve the pressure, by incorporating what is know as defence mechanisms (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.444-445). These principle defences consists of repression, projection, reaction formation, displacement, regression, rationalization, denial and identification, these are used to defend the ego and are known in therapy as denial or repression. Therefore the way in which a person characteristically resolves the instant gratification versus longer-term reward dilemma, in many ways comes to reflect on their â€Å"character† (Kleep, 2008). In contrast to the id is the superego, which is developed at around age five. It is the internalized representation of the traditional values, ideas and moral standards of society and strives for perfection (Pervin et al., 2005). Counsellors who use the structural model commonly focus on helping patients handle conflicts that occur between these three mental agencies by assessing the level of functioning of the client’s id, ego, and superego, the specific areas of weakness and strength in each (Garcia, 1995). For example, counsellors usually diagnose a patient as psychotic if his or her ego suffers a severe impairment in reality-testing. Freud believed that human social and personality development occurs through his psychoanalytic theory of development. This theory consists of five stages the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are characterized by a dominant mode of achieving libidinal pleasure and by specific development tasks. An individual’s personality according to Freud has been shaped by the age of five and he believes this tim e is the most critical for an individual (Hergenhahn & Olson). During these years if an individual is able to successfully negotiate these stages, then healthy personality develops. However, if through â€Å"over-gratification† or â€Å"under-gratification†, conflicts are not resolved adequately specific traits and characters develop and continue through to adulthood. Therefore, Freud believed that the three early stages of development often brought individuals to counselling because there were not properly resolved (Pervin et al., 2005). According to Gladding (2000),†Counsellors who work psychoanalytically should understand at which stage a client is functioning because the stages are directly linked to the plan of treatment† (p.189). Children experience conflicts in different stages of development. In each stage, conflict centers on a different theme. In Freud’s oral sensory stage, which occurs from birth to one year, conflict at this point centers on feeding. Children in this stage want to eat things that the Ego tells them is not good for them. Freud believed that some individuals do not pass this stage successfully and remained dependent and overly optimistic. Such people also find it hard to make intimate friends with others and fear loss which may be accompanied by ‘greed’ (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.443-445). Individuals who are considered to have an oral personality are usually narcissistic which means according to the DSM IV-TR â€Å"enduring pattern[s] of inner experience and behaviour† that are sufficiently rigid and deep-seated to bring a person into repeated conflicts with his or her social and occupational environment† (Barlow & Durand, 2005, p.445). In other words the individual is characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, need for admiration, extreme self-involvement, and lack of empathy for others. However, this disorder is only diagnosed when these behaviours become persistent and very disabling or distressing (Barlow & Durand, 2005). In the second stage which is known as t he anal stage and occurs in the second year of life, conflict centers on bowel training. In counseling this stage involves two phases, one is an aggressive phase. This allows the client to share information that was stored up. The other phase is the retentive phase, where clients may hold on to their negative beliefs and attitudes until they are ready to release them. The reason for such behavior by clients is because they may find some pleasure in resisting and withholding this information (Garcia, 1995). The controversial â€Å"Oedipal complex† for boys or â€Å"Electra complex† for girls occurs in the phallic stage and happens around three to five years. This stage is seen by counselors as the phase of initiation and transition. According to Garcia (1995), â€Å"Counselors may act as initiators by providing appropriately challenging experiences within the scope of each individual’s potential for mastery† (p.499). Freud proposed children at this stage compete with the same sex parent for the affection of the opposite sex parent for example boys desire to have their mother but are prevented by the presence of their father (see Appendix 1). Fear of punishment forces repression of such desires and consequently the superego is developed. To unsuccessfully go through this stage is believed to be associated with obsessive compulsive behaviours (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.446-447). Psychoanalysts pointed out several reasons why the Oedipal complex seem unreal to individuals. Firstly, individuals are unable to comprehend their own Oedipal complex when they were children and what was comprehended was energetically repressed almost as soon as individuals became aware of it. Secondly, individuals gradually accept their culture’s perception for their sexual and aggressive life (Klepp, 2008). In the Caribbean for example boys have more freedom than girls and they learn that they must become like their father, who is stereotypically aggressive, ambitious, powerful, and in direct contrast to his mother, who is stereotypically passive, obedient and nurturing and according to societal norms girls should also possess such traits. T herefore because of societal perspectives on an individual’s life, it is considered as the norm and is accepted for a man to possess more than one female. However it is unorthodox and frowned upon for females to behave in this manner. The fourth stage which is known as the Latency occurs from age six years until puberty. In this stage sexual instincts are repressed and superego is fully developed. At this time clients may be initiating and cultivating new and transitional alliances outside of the helping relationship (Garcia, 1995). The fifth and last stage which is known as the genital stage begins with puberty and continues for the rest of adult life. Mature sexuality is the theme of this stage. This stage is also known as the definitive phase of the counseling process and marks the end of the counseling process and the beginning of its outcome which would be demonstrated over time (Garcia, 1995). Freud suggested strongly that personality was essentially established when the Oedipus and Electra complexes were successfully resolved (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007, p.40-43). Patients usually get in contact with a psychoanalytic counsellor when defences have failed and anxiety has developed. Therefore, the primary goal of counselling, within a psychoanalytic frame of reference, is to make the unconscious conscious. By doing so any material that is repressed is brought to the conscious level and can be dealt with (Wachtek & Messer, 1997). According to Freud (as cited in, Pervin, Cervone & John, 2005, p. 74-82), unhealthy individuals are unaware of the many factors that cause their behaviour and emotions and as a result these unconscious factors have the potential to produce unhappiness, which in turn is expressed through a score of distinguishable symptoms, including disturbing personality traits, difficulty in relating to others and disturbances in self-esteem or general disposition. The counsellor employs a variety of techniques to tap into a patient’s unconscious such as free association, dream analysis, analysis of transference, analysis of resistance and interpretation. All these methods have the long-term goal of strengthening the ego (Gladding, 2000, p.192-194). Free association is a method that replaced hypnosis in Freud’s therapy. It consists of a patient speaking about any subject matter one basically abandons his or her customary conscious control over one’s behaviour and gives free verbal expression to every thought, feeling or impulse of which one becomes aware. Conclusions are then based on what was said and by doing this the counsellor is hoping that the client will abandon all normal forms of censoring, or editing their thoughts (Rieber, 2006). An example of the use of free association is lying on a couch, in dim light and in a peaceful room, the patient produces the following free association: â€Å"I am thinking of the fluffy clouds I seem to see with my very eyes. They are white and pearly. The sky is full of clouds but a few azure patches can still be seen here and there†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ewen, 1992, p.57). Colby (1960) pointed out that, this technique often leads to some recollection of past experiences and at times a release of intense feelings such as catharsis that have been blocked but resistance may occur during free association (p.54-58).. This means that the patient is unable to recall traumatic past events. Therefore, one task of the counsellor would be to overcome resistance. Blocking or disruptions in associations serve as cues to anxiety arousing material. According to Grà ¼nbaum (1986), free association is not a valid method of accessing the patients’ repressed memories because there is no way of ensu ring that the analyst is capable of distinguishing between the patients’ actual memories and imagined memories constructed due to the influence of the analyst’s leading questions (p. 226). Another type of technique that is related to free association is transference. Pervin et al., (2005) stated that, â€Å"transference refers to a patient’s development of attitudes towards the counsellor based on attitudes held by that patient toward earlier parental figures† (p.129). In other words it is the client’s unconscious shifting to the counsellor of feelings and fantasies that are reactions to significant others in the patient’s past and present (Stefflre & Burks, 1979). This process is encouraged by the client reclining vulnerably on a couch, with the counsellor out of sight and remaining a â€Å"blank slate† as much as possible. At this time a parent child relationship is developed among client and counsellor and therefore transfers the patient’s old emotions with his or her actual parents unto the counsellor. This makes for an extremely difficult situation in which the counsellor has a huge amount of influence, which is necessary but requires care and restraint (Sue & Sue, 2007). Freud initially believed transference was a hurdle in counselling. However, he eventually recognized that transference is a universal phenomenon and also occurs outside of the counselling session. But in order for the counselling section to produce change the transference relationship must be work through. Work through occurs after transference in the case of most learning, the insights gained through psychoanalytic counselling must be practiced to integrate them in one’s life. It other words it allows the client to understand the influence of the past on his or her present situation, to accept it emotionally as well as intellectually, and to use the new understanding to make changes in present life. By doing this the client will also learn to avoid repressing the material (Schaeffer, 1998; Ewen, 1992). Ewen (1992) pointed out, several disadvantages to the transference technique. Firstly, this technique can not be effectively applied to group counselling. Secondly, â€Å"it is possible for the transference to become extremely negative as when powerful distrust or obstinacy is displaced from a castrating parent to counsellor† and the counsellor must be very careful not to aggravate deserved love or hate which would give the client a valid excuse for refusing to recognise and learn from the transference technique (p.59). Warwar & Greenberg (2000) discussed recent changes in psychoanalytic theory. Rather than presenting a problem, countertransference currently is considered to be a fundamental, useful component of the psychoanalytic counselling process, because it provides the counsellor with useful information about the counselling relationship (p.571-600). Countertransference occurs when the counsellor begins to project his or her own unresolved conflicts unto the client. While transference of the client’s conflicts unto the counsellor is considered a healthy and normal part of psychoanalytic counselling, the counsellor’s job is to remain neutral as not to breech any of the ethical codes of counselling (Rosenberger & Hayes, 2002). Individuals are seen as being motivated by their past and present relationships, rather than by biological urges when this technique is in use, therefore the counselling relationship is seen as real. Thus client’s behaviour is not seen primarily as transference, but as responses in a current relationship. In addition, change is understood to be the result of the constructive emotional experience of the counselling relationship, rather than the result of insight. This new emphasis on the reality and importance of this type of relationship appears to be integrated into other approaches to counselling as well (Sue & Sue, 2007). Some criticisms of countertransference are that it can be damaging if not proper ly managed. With proper monitoring, however, some sources show that counter-transference can play an important role. Counsellors are encouraged to pay close attention to their feelings in respect to this technique, and to seek peer review and supervisory guidance as needed. Rather than eliminating counter-transference altogether, the goal is to use those feelings productively rather than harmfully (Schaeffer, 1998). The basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation. Brammer, Shostrum & Abrego (1989) states, â€Å"interpretation is an attempt by the counsellor to impart meaning to the client. Interpretation means presenting the client with a hypothesis about relationships or meanings among his or her behaviours† (p.175). In psychoanalytic counselling the counsellor is silent as much as possible, in order to encourage the patient’s free association and to interpret resistances and repressions that the client has not yet understood, but is capable of tolerating and incorporating, s o as to better understand the unconscious conflicts that are interfering with daily functioning, such as phobias and depression (Clark, 1995). Interpretations by the counsellor appear to be the critical variable in counselling success, along with client insight about underlying motivations, in order to achieve client goals. Therefore the goal of interpretation is to enable the ego to assimilate new material and to speed up the process of uncovering further unconscious materials (Wachtel & Messer, 1997). According to Clark (1995) Interpretation was rejected by critics as a valid technique because, â€Å" it was perceived as undermining the counsellors relationship, minimizing or subverting client responsibility and restricting the counselling process to an intellectual endeavour† (p.486). Freud (as cited in Passer & Smith, 2007, p.170-172) saw dreams as the major source of insight into the unconscious and as very important. Dreams are seen as the â€Å"royal road to the unconscious† and are not literal in nature but symbolic. Dreams also consist of two levels of content the latent and manifest. Dream Analysis is a very imperfect science, as there are many levels of distortion between the patient’s unconscious and the counsellor’s interpretation, bearing in mind, according to Freud, dreams are interpreted in terms of phallic meanings (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). For example it is amazing how many ordinary items can be interpreted as being a penis such as chair legs or a vagina such as purses. Each fragment of a dream leads quickly to the disclosure of unconscious memories and fantasies and then unto associations of other topics. Another technique that is involved in the psychoanalytic process of counselling is Analysis of resistance. Although a client may feel the need to change and truly desire help for themselves through the counsellor many things can enter the picture to alter this change; these things are referred to as resistance. Resistance refers to any idea, attitude, feelings or action which can be conscious or unconscious that fosters the status quo and gets in the way of change. For example: missed or being late for appointments, rambling on about the economy or politics, any type of distraction that seems to keep the client from actually focusing on the real issues is considered resistance (Sue & Sue, 2007,p.98). According to Gladding â€Å"a counsellor’s analysis of resistance can assist clients gain insight to their situation and other behaviours (p.193). Psychoanalytic theory has been applied to counselling in terms of the assessment of personality. This theory is the underlining factor of the performance based or projective tests used in psychoanalytic counselling. These assessments assist counsellors in the analysis of individuals’ unconscious thoughts, motives, feelings, conflicts and repressed problems from early childhood. These types of test generally have an unstructured response format, meaning that respondents are allowed to respond as much or as little as they like (free association) to a particular test stimulus, which is normally ambiguous (Pervin et al., 2005). The most common type of test used in this area includes the Rorschach Inkblot test. This test is a method used in psychological evaluation; it can be administered to children as young as three, adolescents and adults. This assessment tries to probe the unconscious minds of clients. The counsellor will show the subject a series of ten irregular but symmetrical inkblots and ask the client to identify the inkblot. As the patient is examining the inkblots the counsellor writes down everything the patient says or does, no matter how trivial the subject’s responses. These responses are then analysed in various ways noting not only what was said but the time taken to respond and which aspect of the drawings was focused on. At this time if a client consistently sees the images as threatening and frightening the counsellor might infer that the subject may be suffering from paranoia. Major criticisms of this test include a lack or reliability and validity. Individuals who benefit the most from psychoanalytic counselling are those middle aged clients who are searching for a meaning to life (Pervin et al., 2005). The principal concepts of psychoanalytic counselling can be grouped as structural, dynamic, and developmental concepts. This theory is a method for learning about the mind and insights into whatever the human mind produces. It is a way of understanding the processes of everyday mental functioning and the stages of development (Sue & Sue, 2007). Freud’s approach is subject to several criticisms. Firstly, it is too time consuming, expensive and generally ineffective to those who seek help from a psychoanalytic counsellor who has less disruptive developmental or situational problems and disorders. Secondly, techniques involved in psychoanalysis, such as Freud’s ideas on the interpretation of dreams and the role of free association, have been criticized. For instance, one counsellor may observe one phenomenon and interpret it one way, whereas another counsellor will observe the same phenomenon and interpret it in a completely different way that is contradictory to the first psychoanalyst’s interpretation (Stefflre & Burks, 1979). Despite the weaknesses of psychoanalysis, there are many strengths of the theory that are extremely significant. It offers an empathetic and non-judgemental environment where the client can feel safe in revealing feelings or actions that have led to stress or tension in his or her life. It also lends itself to empirical studies and provides a theoretical base support for a number of diagnostic tests (Gladding, 2000, p.194-195).Therefore, the psychoanalysis is a theory that should not be disregarded. Although it was developed a long time ago it is still applicable and an effective method of treating mental disorders such as paranoia, schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive reactions in today’s societies. In addition, a good theory, according to many philosophers of science, is falsifiable, able to be generalized, leads to the development of new psychological theories and hypotheses. Psychoanalysis meets many of these criteria (Klepp, 2008). References Barlow,D., & Durand, V. (2005). Abnormal psychology: An integrative Approach (4th Ed). Belmont: Wadsworth. Brammer, L.M., Shostrum, E. L., & Abrego, P. J. (1989). Therapeutic psychology: Fundamentals of Counseling and psychotherapy (5th Ed). Prentice Hall. Clark, J. A, (1995). An examination of the technique of interpretation in counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73 (5), 483-489. Colby, K. M. (1960). An Introduction to psychoanalytic research (1st Ed). New York: Basic. Ewen, B. R. (1992). An Introduction to theories of personality (4th Ed). Psychology Press. Garcia, L. J, (1995). Freud’s psychosexual stage conception: A developmental metaphor for counsellors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73 (5), 498-502. Gladding, T. S, (2000). Counseling: A Comprehensive profession (4th Ed). Prentice Hall, Inc Grà ¼nbaum, A. (1986). Prà ©cis of The foundations of psychoanalysis: A philosophical critique. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 217-284. Hergenhahn, R., & Olson, H. M (2007). An Introduction to Theories of Personality (7th Ed). Pearson Prentice Hall. http://myauz.com/ianr/articles/lect3freud07.pdf. Retrieved October 19th, 2009. Klepp, L. (2008). Meetings of the mind. The weekly standard, 13(42), 29-31 Passer, W. M., & Smith, E. R. (2007). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior (3rd Ed). McGraw Hill. Pervin, A. L., Cervone, D., & John, P. O. (2005). Personality Theory and Research (Eds). John Wiley. Rieber, W. R. (2006), The Bifurcation of the self: the history and theory of dissociation and its Disorders (1st Ed). Springer. Rosenberger, W. E., & Hayes, A. J. (2002). Therapist as subject: A review of empirical countertransference literature. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80 (3), 264- 270 Sarnoff, I. (1960). Psychoanalytic Theory and social attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24(2), 251-279. Schaeffer, A. J. (1998). Transference and countertransference interpretations : Harmful or helpful in short-term dynamic therapy?. American journal of psychotherapy , 52 (1), 1- 17. Stefflre, B., & Burks, M. H (1979). Theories of Counselling (3rd Ed). McGraw-Hill. Sue, D., & Sue, M. D (2007). Foundations of Counseling and Psychotherapy: Evidence based practices for a diverse society (1st Ed ). John Wiley & Sons. Wachtel, L. P., & Messer, B. S. (1997).Theories of Psychotherapy Origins and Evolution (1st Ed). American Psychological Association. Warwar, S. & Greenberg, L. S. (2000). Advances in theories of change and counseling: Handbook of Counselling psychology (3rd Ed). New York: Wiley and Sons.

A Comparative Study of the Similarities Between The Nightingale by Kristin Hannah and the Traditional Folk Tales

A Comparative Study of the Similarities Between The Nightingale by Kristin Hannah and the Traditional Folk Tales The Nightingale as a mistaken folktale. The Nightingale has many similarities to a traditional folktale story but it also differs in many ways. The similarities and differences are commonly found in the beginning, middle and ending of the story. Some of the similarities are the introduction to the story, the use of three repetitions, helper figures, and the resolution of conflict at the end of the story. It is evident that there are more similarities than differences and The Nightingale could easily be mistaken for a folktale. First of all, the story of The Nightingale starts off by creating a distant setting that happened long ago and makes it known that its an old story. Folktales, that are also known to be old stories, are characterized by the way the author introduces the story such as â€Å"once upon a time, in a far away kingdom†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Another common characteristic of a folktale that The Nightingale has is the plot and the beginning, middle, and end. In The Nightingale the beginning of the story focuses on creating an imaginary landscape, one that is a world of magic and beauty. This story creates an obstacle right from the start where the chamberlain is in search of the nightingale at the emperor’s request. In this part of the story, the conflict fell into the repetition of three’s, which is another characteristic of a folktale. Here, the chamberlain hears the cow mooing and thinks it is the bird, next he hears the frogs croaking and also thinks it is the bird, finally, he hear s the real nightingale bird. Another similarity between the traditional folktale and this story is that the story includes helper figures. The Nightingale has three—the chamberlain who helps find the nightingale bird for the emperor, the kitchen helper who takes the chamberlain to the forest to find the bird, and the nightingale bird itself, as it sings for the emperor to bring him back to good health. In the middle of the story, there wasn’t a main conflict like a traditional folktale would have. The conflict in the story also followed the sequence of three’s—the search for the bird, the bird that has escaped, and the sick emperor. The action in the story comes quickly such as the time when the emperor became ill. After the climax of the story, the end of the story approaches quickly much like the plot that happens in a folktale. A well-known characteristic of a folktale is that they have heroes who usually resolve the conflict/obstacle near the end of the story, which creates the usual happy ending. In The Nightingale the nightingale bird is recognized as the hero since he is the one who saves the emperor’s life. The bird resolves the conflict in the empire entirely because it suggests informing the emperor in the future about all of the things he did not know, such as who is rich and happy, who is hurt and poor etc. and the bird also volunteers itself to forever be there for the emperor, to sing to him, to keep him happy and in good health. Once the agreement is made between the emperor and the bird, the villain is defeated and the hero is rewarded. This creates the happy ending in the story, which is another characteristic in a folktale. It is evident that The Nightingale has many similarities with the traditional folktale. There are more similarities than differences and The Nightingale can easily be mistaken for a folktale. It has many of the characteristics identified in a folktale such as a villain, a hero, the sequence of three’s, a beginning that creates an imaginary landscape, a middle that has three different conflicts, and a happy ending where there is a resolution.

Is cooperation possible under conditions of International Anarchy Essay

Is cooperation possible under conditions of International Anarchy discuss in light of realist and pluralist approaches to international relations - Essay Example According to the principle of realists' movement, everything that need not be regulated within the general framework should be left to decide for subordinate groups and, in turn, to individuals to guarantee them a maximum amount of freedom. Proponents of pluralism argue that this negotiation process is the best way to achieve the common good: since everyone can participate in power and decision-making and can claim part of the ownership of the results of exercising power "Black, Bob (1997). Anarchy after Leftism." There can also be widespread participation and a greater feeling of commitment from society members, and therefore better outcomes. By contrast, few members make an authoritarian or oligarchic society, where power is concentrated and decisions. This School of thought holds that while the international system is anarchical, order can be promoted through diplomacy, international law and society. This school thus gives credence to establishing intergovernmental organizations s uch as the United Nations. The idea of international cooperation despite the unpredictable elements of anarchy can be viewed in the existence of the United Nations. ... d Social Council, ECOSOC assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development "Basic Facts About The United Nations", By United Nations (2004) ISBN 9211009367." Since 1998, it directs to make decision of the key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Their function includes information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. International relations, in general focus the foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It seeks to analyze as well as formulate the foreign policy of particular states. International Relation draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues, from glob alization and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, terrorism, organized crime, human security, and human rights. REALISM AS THE VEHICLE OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATIONS Realism chiefly denies that states seek to cooperate. Early realists such as E.H. Carr, Daniel Bernhard and Hans Morgenthau argued that states are self-interested, power-seeking rational actors, who seek to maximize their security and chances of survival. Realists previewed World War II as the vindication of their theory. They advocate that the current international system sustain by growing interdependence; the mutual responsibility and dependency on others. Globalization, in particular plays vital role with international

Project study Case Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project - Case Study Example Plagiarism is an illegal, punishable act that constitutes fines between $100 and $50000, one year imprisonment, or both (â€Å"Plagiarism FAQs†). If a writer copies even one sentence from another piece of work, it falls under the category of plagiarism. On the other hand, originality refers to one’s own words, ideas, thoughts, and expressions. In order to avoid plagiarism, the writer must be vigilant to change the 5 W’s and H (who, what, where, when, why, and how), but most significantly the writer must use his own words. In total, Plagiarism is illegal and immoral while originality is legal and moral. 2. Process of research question development Choosing an appropriate topic/issue is the first phase in developing a research question as it gives a ‘specific focus’ for the writing (â€Å"The relationship between†). The major topic may be subdivided into smaller pieces but the writer must stick to one major issue per research paper so as to have a coherent piece of work. While breaking down the major topic into its components, a series of questions may be listed. Once the listing of questions is completed, the researcher must review the listed questions in order to select the most appropriate one that is â€Å"neither too broad nor too narrow† (Bryman & Bell, 87). ... Difference between description and analysis As Egger and Carpi point out, the term description can be defined as a detailed presentation of certain aspects, features, or characteristics of a subject matter, something experienced, seen, heard, or known; in contrast, analysis refers to the interpretation of the described information and it includes lots of lists, data, and graphs (â€Å"research methods†). The difference between description and analysis is similar as that of data vs. information. For instance, an organization may compile ranges of data (description), but this description is of no use unless it is interpreted in a meaningful context (analysis). The reader gets lots of facts and data while going through the description part, but he would not understand why it is important and how it should be applied unless an effective analysis of the data is given. Therefore, description is only the factual representation whereas analysis makes this representation meaningful. 4. Data selection criteria Data selection is an important and complex process that determines â€Å"the appropriate data type and source as well as suitable methods† to gather data (â€Å"The Ohio State University†). The process of data selection is entirely different from selective data supporting and interactive data selection. The method of data selection would be often discipline-specific and is determined by the nature of research, existing academic literature, and accessibility to relevant data sources. While choosing data, first priority must be given on ability of data for effectively answering the research questions rather than cost and convenience of data accessibility. Similarly, researcher must be aware of fixing proper procedures in order for getting a representative sample while

World History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

World History - Essay Example The country was divided as never before or since and it was seemingly the last time civilians bravely sacrificed themselves for a cause. The Vietnam War divided the nation along ideological battle lines. The older generation, the ‘establishment’, was of the WWII period and operated under a nationalistic perspective. They believed that to be a true patriot was to blindly follow the authority of the governmental powers that be, to support your ‘country’ even when you thought it was wrong. The young college protesters, the ‘new generation’, the counter-culture redefined this notion of patriotism. They believed that to be truly patriotic was to question the decisions of government and openly dissent when it was judged to be wrong. The philosophical chasm was wide and emotions ran deep on both sides. Those that protested sacrificed much. They suffered the scorn of their parents who couldn’t understand why their children were rebelling against the very foundation of their parents’ beliefs thus causing what was referred to as the ‘generation gap.’ Some war protesters were killed by soldiers of the National Guard as was the case at Kent State and South Carolina State. The protesters and draft-dodgers were thought of as anti-American by the mainstream citizenry who regarded their actions as nothing short of treasonous. This attitude makes one wonder what the ‘greatest generation’ thought they were fighting for during WWII. They fought to defend freedom on foreign soil but were very much opposed to the constitutionally guaranteed right to peacefully assemble in their own country (Bexte, 2002). The war protesters of the 1960’s had the courage to act upon their political and philosophical convictions unlike those who are opposed to the Iraq War today. The two conflicts are eerily similar on many fronts yet the public reaction has been very dissimilar. Then as now, those opposed to the war are

Planning and Time Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Planning and Time Management - Case Study Example The main idea of this research paper is to discuss the points of effective management. Management is the process of planning, organising, leading and controlling all phases of business operation in order to achieve the objectives of that organisation. Effective management invariably results in business success, while ineffective management often results in business failure. Using the POLC Model of Management, the key components namely planning, organizing, leading and controlling involves the use of different skills. (Burns, 1978) Carl Robbins was assigned to arrange and prepare the orientation for the new hires. In the context of the case, Robbins is the manager for the task. Planning is an intellectually demanding process, because it requires deliberate courses of action where decisions are based on purpose, knowledge and considerable degree of estimates. Planning minimizes costs. Its emphasis is on efficient and effective operations and consistency of procedures and methods. (Burns, 1978) Organizing includes the skills of self- managing and team work thus time is considered as an essential factor. The word organization refers to the structure or a network of relationships among individuals interacting with one another. Organizing as a tool is an end in itself but a means of achieving the objectives of the organization. Organizing is basically grouping of activities and defining the roles of the participants with appropriate authority and proper coordination in the organizational structure. (Morgenstern, 1998). Organizing, in its essence, relates to the identification and classification of required activities, the grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives, the assignment of each grouping to a manager without the authority necessary to direct and supervise it, and the provision for coordination horizontally and vertically in the organizational structure. Leading needs the use of people skills, complex problem solving, and ethical and high personal standards. Leadership is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals. It does not mean only willingness to work but also willingness to work with zeal and confidence. Leadership is the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routing directives of the organization. This means that an organizational role may encompass different objectives, but become non-personal so that in order to become effective, a personal touch must be in it. (Burns, 1978) Managerial leadership is the process of directing and influencing task-related activities of group members. Leadership involves the most vital resources of the organization- the people. Power distribution between leaders and group members is

Vodafone Group Plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vodafone Group Plc - Essay Example The availability of the cheap credit made it very easy for people to finance car loans. Thus people ended up spending much more than they were earning. This led to an over flow of cars on the road. The increased demand also forced manufacturers to spend more on capital expansions. However as the world saw this demand was not real demand but in fact only an inflated market. The financial hit to these automobile manufacturers was therefore very severe. The developments in the financial sector also directly affected another industry. The real estate sector was without doubt the most affected in the recent economic crisis. The large amount of were mortgages taken out on properties which were worth much less than, led to a terrible crash in the housing market. When the market corrected itself and reached equilibrium it was a bit too late for the financial gurus who had missed the apparent signs of what was to follow. The telecommunication industry was another industry which was severely i njured by the financial crunch. The affects on the telecommunication industry however were relatively different as compared to the other two sectors discussed above. This is because the affect on the telecom sector was not a direct affect but rather a trickle down affect. The industry suffered from a general slowdown in business and lack of available credit to sustain the capital costs the industry had incurred in the periods of growth. The reduced consumer spending due to lack of jobs and increased competition from competitors also results in major setbacks to the telecommunications industry. Therefore we can say that the telecommunication industry was a victim to its own fast growth. The increased competition amongst the industry led to reduced profit taking opportunities for players and thus lower profits. Telecommunication Industry The telecom industry for the year 2010 was steady even if there was no great growth. The industry was suffering from limited consumer base in the las t couple of years. However new niches have appeared in the market which can be targeted by smaller players. Moreover the turmoil in the market which was very common in 2009 was slightly reduced. Many smaller companies were being closed down or were being bought off. This trend was greatly reduced in the last year. This does not only show that there is still demand for new telecom products but in fact the market is more diverse than ever before. Therefore opportunities are present from large networks with long reach and smaller networks with specialized products. Another reason to this revival is the reduced emphasis of the industry on replacing older technology with newer versions. This is also in part due to the sluggish market conditions. A very good example is of the NT6X21AC line card. To predict the future of the telecom industry is right no not possible. This is because more than economics factors this is actually mostly dependent on technological factors. The recent progress brought about in the telecom industry by gadgets such as iphone and android can be a life saver for the telecommunication industry. This is because the telecommunication industry is finally getting consumer’s money for using the internet services. If this trend continues, the smart phones would turn out to be the laptops of tomorrow. This would however depend

No more Privacy polices Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

No more Privacy polices - Term Paper Example This is manifested on how machines that we encounter in daily activities like ATMs and supermarkets and such things store our data, which are not limited to personal but includes behavioral patterns determined through recorded choices (Moor 1997:27). This kind of phenomenon intrudes one’s privacy. In some cases, the data gathered through these channels can be used to oppress or tamper’s one’s right, not just privacy but extends to other rights innate to individual like due process and others. In dealing with complex issue of privacy, there is a need to look at in a theoretical perspective: ethical theory of privacy. Three – fold premises emerges: something vital and important to defend and something based on individual’s preference and the importance of privacy (Moor 1997:28). There is a need to be not confused on how these premises work. Having Moor as the point of departure, I shall project a more concise use and view of the term â€Å"privacy†. One thing to take into account is that privacy is an instrument for protection from harm, which could be an incursion of personal life that is no longer the scope of outside forces (Moor 1997:28). One example is HIV+ individuals whose medical information can be prejudiced, which can be a cause for non – selection in a profession or can face other forms of discrimination (Moors 1997:28). In this case, privacy accords individual safety to assure enjoyment of equal benefits like fair treatment in work place or any other things that should be enjoyed by everyone. Furthermore, privacy is a tool to build relationship to people (Moors 1997:28). In the case of building relationships, there are certain personal things that are kept private for the sake of assurance and acceptance. Sometimes, in intimate relationships, like marriages, privacy can be considered absence since trust is a condition to be met. There is a need to be open about one’s actions and decisions since it is shared.

Homework wk 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Homework wk 4 - Assignment Example A short-term loan is a loan given for at most a three-year period. An overdraft is where the bank allows a customer to overdraw money from the bank, which happens within the banks limits. A variable rate of interest is charged on the amount the corporation is overdrawn on daily basis. Short-term borrowing has a self-liquidating nature, where the company gets short-term loans, uses it get more inventory that in turn promote production of more final product to meet demand. Receivables as a result of the sales thereafter, become cash which is used to pay for the seasonal short-term loan and cover related long-term financing costs. These sources of liquidity involve an agreement between a credit offering facility and the company. Therefore, a variable or fixed rate interest is always charged according to the policies and terms and conditions of the lender. With the annual average purchases and the average accounts payable it is possible to get accounts payable turnover ratio which is the number of times the accounts payable are turned over or purchases paid for in a

Stereotypes in the Media Essay Example for Free

Stereotypes in the Media Essay Abstract The aim of this research is aimed to compare the frequency of stereotypes between different genres of prime time television shows. 36 Year 11 students were enrolled to record the number of stereotypes they saw portrayed in televised media. The results were collated to compare how many stereotypes appeared in the genres. Results indicated that News portrayed the most stereotypes, followed by comedy, then by drama. Results interpreted showed news stereotypes are considered more socially acceptable, whereas comedy stereotypes can be viewed as offensive and not suitable for children. Drama was very similar to comedy. Stereotypes and their Pervasiveness in the Media The media these days is littered with stereotypes. These stereotypes portray a multitude of different categories, such as age, race, religion, sex and sexuality, mostly in a negative light. The aged, for example, have bad hearing; Muslims are all violent and suicidal; and the French have a snobbish attitude, love for frogs legs, and a hate for the English. While stereotypes tend to have a grain of truth within them (the French really do hate the English), they tend to overlook the differences between individuals, making them too generalised and unreliable. Despite this inaccuracy, the media still does this often. While stereotypes are used in comedy â€Å"for the lulz,† they are deliberately used in this manner, unlike in certain news and current affairs shows, where it is used out of ignorance and efficiency. Because of the way media has stereotyped minorities, society has absorbed this into everyday use and many find it socially acceptable to use offensive stereotypes in everyday conversations. While comedy shows are not trying to offend and proliferate stereotypes, they in fact cause more harm than news and current affairs programs. The Simpsons, a television show known well for its satirical voice and comedic social commentary, is scattered with stereotypes, many of immigrants. Apu, an Indian convenience store owner who appears often in the show, is stingy and has a recognisably Indian accent and prays to his Hindu god, Ganesh. This inaccurate portrayal of Indian immigrants is perceived to be humourous by the public, but they are likely to apply these stereotypes to real people if their misconceptions are not corrected. This research aimed to compare the frequency of stereotypes between different genres of prime time television shows. The genres compared were comedy, drama and news. The hypothesis is that comedy will have the most stereotypes, followed by news, then by drama. Method Participants The participants in this investigation were 36 fifteen to sixteen year olds in year 11 of high school. The students were all academically selective and were mostly Caucasian. The participants chosen were all psychology students, taught by the same teacher. Parents had given permission to participate in this research and signed a permission slip for students to watch at least 3 prime time television shows within two weeks, one to be news or current affairs, the other two being of their choice. Apparatus A log sheet was given (see appendix A) to record the amount of time watching television, and the number of stereotypes noticed. Televisions were to be provided by the participants. So were pens. Procedure The 36 participants were instructed to watch television between the hours of 5 and 10pm. While watching television, they were to record the number of times they saw a stereotype being portrayed and comment on what was being portrayed. This took place over two weeks, after which the results were collated and analysed. Results The results are shown in chart form in Appendix B and C. Once the results were graphed there was not much of a difference between the genres. The data in the graph is collected from a number of participants’ log sheets. 30 people watched news, 21 watched comedy, and 19 watched dramas. The graph didn’t show a single genre to contain significantly more stereotypes. [pic] The graph above shows that there seems to be less of a gap between different stereotypes in comedy, while news has more stereotypes of age and less of religion. Drama has less stereotypes than the others, even when the lack of viewers is factored in. Race and gender are the stereotypes most portrayed by television. Discussion The data partially supports the hypothesis. Despite drama being the genre of television with the least stereotypes, comedy came second to news. News portrayed a lot more stereotypes of age. This is probably a result of violent attacks on old people in their homes. The least portrayed were sexuality, most likely a result of complaints of sexually explicit material being aired. The results do show a large amount of stereotypes are present in television shows. The stereotyping has a tendency to make things quicker and less time-consuming. After all, how is it possible to list all the political, social, economic, ideological and theological differences of a population of about 6 billion? The accuracy of this investigation is to be questioned. While it is possible to rely on this data, it is not going to be completely accurate and it may not demonstrate the true amount of stereotyping done on television. If, for example, all the news shos watched were from the same network, this would affect the results. Other networks may be more biased or even more impartial. The lack of regulation of the programs and networks would have had some effect on the accuracy of the results. Also, the method of recording the stereotypes might also affect the results. With a very vague system, it is impossible to be exact on what stereotypes are displayed, and whether they are a simple comment on turbans, or a full-fledged attack on the habits of old people. Very little research has been done into the number of stereotypes portrayed on television, as opposed to countless studies into the harmfulness of these stereotypes on impressionable children and even adults. The research shows that there are a lot of stereotypes on television, at least 5 or 6 per program. This research is part of understanding how television networks design their shows, and how stereotypes are used as they are instrumental to making changes to unfair depiction of minorities in the media. If the stereotypes are deemed inappropriate then it would be unlikely to make things any better when it comes to international relations and even domestic relations. There has been a lot of rage aimed at the Australians who assaulted two Indian students in Sydney. The acts of violence against minorities have escalated recently. Further research may venture into stereotyping of specific minorities, to examine the details of stereotyping.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay Example for Free

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay During the nineteenth century, regional and period language was used in a way that most 21st century readers would find offensive, for modern society standards do not tolerate overt racism. In Mark Twain’s classic 1884 novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, particular words are so disturbing that individuals across the country are still, to this day, attempting to have the book banned in schools and libraries. The idea that any book should be locked away in a vault, let alone an example of a beloved American classic such as this, is profoundly disturbing. Such acts are against what America stands for. Works of art, like this book, should be used to open dialogue and analysis on both the piece itself and the society from which it came. Rather than attempting to censor this particular novel, society should encourage students to have a discussion about why the offending words are so egregious, and why it is important that a record of these words and attitudes exist for generations to come. Words carry weight, and the significance of the â€Å"N† word in Huckleberry Finn is heavy and dripping with a sordid history of racism. It is a term that holds an impassable amount of cultural appropriation and painful association. The word, used in a classic literary context, is then a perfect way to open up a dialogue about issues that are difficult to talk about. Political correctness, racial slurs, America’s dark past—these are all topics that can be used to teach young people how to have a meaningful conversation about a torrid subject matter. Instead of banning the book and ignoring the past, society should be embracing the story and teaching people how to deal with the words in a tactful and progressive way. If young people can understand the horrible impact of such language, they will be less likely to use these words in casual conversations. Moving forward from America’s shameful history of racism is difficult and taxing. But the only way to progress toward a more loving and tolerant future is to learn from past mistakes. Twain was a product of his time, putting words into the mouths of his characters that would easily have come from the mouths of real people. It is also important to remember that the character of Huck Finn himself is anti-racist, so teaching the book to young people is not teaching racism, but acceptance. It is imperative for people to connect with the period of history that Huckleberry Finn comes from because suppressing these truths about America’s past can easily create a skewed interpretation of facts. If this occurs, society is one step closer to forgetting and repeating mistakes from past events. Banning books is an effective way to censor, and in the case of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, censorship would directly resolve inappropriate language being heard and used in the high school English class. With this said, Americans whole-heartedly believe that open expression is a very important personal right. The right to free speech is sacred, and it is mostly untouched even in circumstances where highly polarizing or hateful words are being used. A work of fiction that integrates dialogue containing the â€Å"N† word may seem hateful to some, but it is unequivocally the intention of the author to use it in a context of satire. Censorship will effectively close the book on meaningful discussion when what society really needs is to open it for thoughtful examination. At a time when it is nearly impossible to find an adult engaged in a healthy debate or discussion, teaching young adults how to think and speak analytically and fairly is a dire need. Using fictional novels such as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn as a bridge to a discussion of what used to be, and what has become, is a perfect opportunity that this country cannot afford to dismiss. By keeping books deemed controversial in public education, Americans can begin to understand the preciousness of the right to speak their minds, as well as respect and acknowledge the lessons of the past. This alone will heal the mistakes of the past and create a future of tolerance and opportunity for all.

Importance of Social Conflict Theory

Importance of Social Conflict Theory Why is theory important in the area of sociology? A theory is a proposed relationship between two or more concepts. In sociology, sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related (Marcioni Geber, 2010, p14). They range in scope from concise descriptions of a single social process to examples or models for analysis and interpretation. Some sociological theories explain aspects of the social world and enable prediction about future events (Robert, 2012), while others function as broad perspective which guides further sociological analyses (Kallom, 2002). The importance of theory in the area of sociology cannot be overemphasized. Theories such as the social conflict theory, structural functionalism theory, positivism theory, field theory, rational choice theory, and so on, were developed to explain social phenomena. In sociology, a theory may specify deterministic properties of a set of entities, thus permitting point predictions about future states of the relevant system, or it may specify probabilistic relations among entities, giving rise to statements about the distribution of possible future states of the system. A theory is provided with a set of â€Å"bridge† statement that permit the theorist to connect the consequences of the theory with predictions about, observable state of affairs. Sociology is an examination of human beings in social contexts. Observing how people in specific communities interact, taking surveys and conducting experiments yield new data to build sociological knowledge. Sociological theories are frameworks explaining how specific aspects of society are linked to larger processes. An element characterizing society is interdependence. Individuals or organizations cannot survive independently while even seemingly dissimilar concept such as religion and the rise of an economic system can be closely connected. In other words, theories help determine interdependent aspects. Civic competence involved been able to make informed and rational decisions on every issue, from participating in elections to settling disputes with their neighbours. Theories in the area of sociology will help people understand how society works and how they can be a useful part in it. Furthermore, it almost impossible to make decisions affecting a certain community without deep knowledge of its structure, as miscalculated decisions can have a severe impact on people’s lives. Tackling societal problems such as alcoholism, high criminal rate, requires decision makers to know what exactly the problem is and its causes. Sociological theories provide an insight on such issues, making it easier and safer for elected representatives to find solutions to social problems. Sociologist focus on how a society is structured, how each and every individual works as part of the whole, how society has changed over the years and predictions of future changes. In essence, sociological theories help people understand society and knowledge of the world as it grows. Conclusively therefore sociological theory was defined by Rizzer (2013) as a set of interrelated ideas that allow for the systematization of knowledge of the social world. This knowledge is then used to explain the social world and make predictions about the future of the world (p5). Discuss any sociology theory of your choice The Social Conflict Theory is one of the theories in sociology. The conflict theory was originated by Karl Marx in the mid – 1800’s. The theory states that human behaviour results in conflicts between competiting groups. The belief is that in all stratified societies, there are two major social groups, a ruling class and a subject class (Anderson Taylor, 2009). The ruling class enjoys been the owner and having control over forces of production hereby exploiting the subject class. This has resulted in a basic conflict of interest between the two classes. Social conflict is the struggle between segments of society over valued resources (Aghababa, 2011). Social conflict turned a small population into capitalists in the nineteenth century. Capitalists are people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits. However, capitalism turned most people into industrial workers whom Marx called proletarians. Proletarians actually sold their labour for wages. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials such as class, gender and race conflict, and contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change (Macious Gerber, 2011, p15). Social conflict theory is a compact of the four major paradigms of sociology. Other important sociologists Harriet Martinean, Hane Addams and Dubois (Macious Geber, 2011) argue that this sociological approach does not look at how social structures help society to operate, but instead looks at how â€Å"social patterns† can cause some people in the society to be dominant and others to be oppressed. The social conflict theory opines that individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources (such as the wealthy vs the poor) and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. Two methods by which this exploitation is done are through brute force usually done by police, the army and economics. Earlier social conflict theories argue that money is the mechanism which creates social disorder. It can also be deduced from their beliefs that the society is created from ongoing social conflict between various groups. The social conflict theory believes social relationships are about power and exploitation; the rich exploiting the poor. Citing an example of this oppression is a renter for instance, living in a rented apartment for fifty years and having no right or economic interest within the property. In sociology, conflict theory opines that the society functions so that everyone or group involved can make the best use of benefits which in the long run brings about social changes. Most times, the theory is applied to explain conflict between social classes in ideas such as socialism and communism. Competition plays a vital role in understanding conflict theory. Accordingly, there are three primary assumptions of modern conflict theory. The first is competition over scarce resources such as money and leisure which is characteristic of human relationship. Second is structural inequality which has to do with inequalities in power and reward. Thirdly, it is believed that revolution is eminent because change occurs as a result of conflict between competing interests, rather than through adaptation. According to McCafferty (2006), conflict theory emphasizes the social political or material inequality of a social group. It also contrast dominant ideologies and make open differences in p ower. Conflict theory is mostly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism and positivist method, may also be associated with number of other perspectives including critical theory, feminist theory, post-modern theory, post structural theory etc (Rodney, 2007). Conflict theory posits that social groups or classes compete with each other in order to obtain resources that the society deems important. A realistic social conflict theory is an understanding of the positive role of social conflict in serving the common good. It is actually expected to put change in perspective since all substantial social change involves social conflict. Social conflict theory plays a position role, when properly understood, in promoting groups to find common ground, form alliances, define core values, identify differences in view point, set group boundaries, and inform strategies for achieving expected change. Understanding these functions of social conflict in the context of a social conflict theory is an essential process in positive social change. To understand social conflict theory, it must be known that in a democratic society, no one group should dominate all other groups. The power any group is supposed to have and especially of large institutions, is limited by force of law and by social impact, custom and social tradition within that frame of reference. Various interest groups and institutions compete, negotiate and work out changes in socio-economic arrangements generating social conflict in the process. Wright Mills who has been called the founder of modern conflict theory opined that social structures are created through conflict between people with differing interest and resources. Individuals and resources in turn, are influential by these structures and by the unequal distribution of power and resources in the society (Knapp, 1994, pp228-246). REFERENCES Aghababa, Hossein (October, 2011). There will be Blood http://www.independent.fil Reviews. Com/there will be Blood Anderson, M L. And Taylor, H.F., Sociology: The Essentials, (Rhomson Wadswoth, Belmot Ca, 2009). Berger, Joseph,2000 â€Å"Theory and Formalization, Some Reflections on Experience. Sociological Theory 18 93): 482 – 489. Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Wiley – Blackwell pp.1 Gerber, John J. Macious, Linda M. Gerber 2011 â€Å"Sociology† (7th Canadian Ed) 2011., Toronto: Pearson Canada p. 15 John J. Macious, Linda M. Gerber, â€Å"Sociology† Seventh Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada. Keel, Robert.†What is Sociological Theory?† Robert Keel. Retrieved 29 February 2012. Knapp, P-. (1994) One World – Many Worlds; Contemporary Sociological Theory (2nd Ed.) It Apprercollins Colleges Div, Pp 228 – 246 Liz, Sharon, Granehoolz, Boiuma – Holtrop (2003) â€Å"Explaining Critical Sociological Thinking. Teaching Sociology 31 (4): 485 – 496. Macious Gerber, John J. and Linda M. (2010). Sociology 7th Canadian edition. Uppersaddle River, New Jessey, USA: Pearson Education Inc P.14 Marx, karl 1971, Preface to Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, TR S.W. Ryanzanskaya, Edited by M. Dobbi. London; Lawrence Whishart. McCafferty Kevin C (2006) Conflict Theory How Contributor, http://www.Ehow.Com/Facts-5518763 conflict-theory. Obserschal Anthony, Theories of Social Conflict, from Annual Review of Sociology, Vol 4, pp291 – 315, (1978). Rizzer, G., Contemporary Sociological Theory and its Classical Roots from The Basics, 4th ed., (McGraw Hill, St Louis, 2013). Rodney, Stark (2007).Sociology (10th Ed.) Thomas Wadsworth. Sears, A., A Good Book, In Theory A Guide To Theoretical Thing North York Higher Education (University Of Toronto Press, P.G, 2008) pp 4 -6. Skocpol, Theda., States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China, (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1980). Thio, Alek (2008). Sociology: A Brief Introduction (7th Ed) Pearson. Understanding Social Conflict Theory [online], Available from: http://www.orgownneysinto-the Justice.Com/Social Conflict Theory_ht,. http://neo humanism./org/c/co/conflict_theory.html. [Accessed 23 March 2014]. 1

Story Truth Vs. Happening Truth Using Tim Obriens work Essays -- Tim

The Effect of "Story Truth" vs. "Happening Truth" Literature is such a beautiful thing because it does not give us an answer to it's questions. There are so many iffy spots that leave us to develop our own thoughts and feelings toward the piece of work. This is an interesting factor because at many times it affects us in a different way and can develop us as an individual. When reading a piece of literature, one person can interpret it in different ways than another person reading the same piece of work. I remember analyzing poems with my English class in the previous years and when we were asked to interpret it, we all had different answers. Sometimes what I got out of the poem didnÂ’t even go close to the direction that my classmate was going in. However, when I saw it from her view I saw more of where they were coming from I learned more about them. I read, "The Things They Carried," in last year's English class. I think that this is the only book that my class as a whole read, which means a lot coming from a class where spark notes was their way out. The way Tim O'Brien wrot...

Pluralistic Extension System :: Politics, Government Programs

Definition Pluralistic extension system is provision of extension services for a community which is conducted by more than one source of extension services (Okorley, Grey, & Reed, 2010). According to Rivera & Alex (2004), pluralistic extension system may hold complex providers like non-governmental organizations, private companies, farmers’ organizations, commercial individuals, extension specialists’ associations, and public extension services at municipal, state, and national. Non-pluralistic extension system, by definition, is single provider of extension service which is conducted by only public extension agents. It is clear that pluralistic extension system do not eliminated the public extension workers from the system, but the system adds other potential extension agencies along with the existing public extension agency. Why is it necessary? There are several reasons why pluralistic extension system is required. One of the reasons is that previous single provider of extension system, mainly Training and Visit (T&V system) was criticized for its limited advantages. As the case in India, the T&V system was blamed for only boosting commodity and supply-driven but not generate income. It was also criticized as the cause of the fall of commodity price, disintegration among sub-sectors, and poor focus on farmer organization development (Singh & Swanson, n.d.). Former extension system was occasionally considered as inefficient, having unclear and incompatible objectives of state intervention, vague rules for implementation; it also provides limited incentive for extension workers, and lack of financial transparency (Rivera & Alex, 2004). Moreover, the pluralistic extension system is expected to reduce financial burden of national government due to large institutional structures and perceived ineffectiveness of former extensio n system (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). Earlier extension system was also blamed for not giving much attention in involving farmers to define and solve their own problems, while having poor linkage of extension-research-farmer system (Davis, 2008). The support of farmers’ group as possessing power for extension provider comes from Davis’ research in Kenya (n.d.), in which she found that farmers’ groups were considered by local farmers as credible source of agricultural information provider (Davis, n.d.) What are the main dimensions? Rivera & Alex (2004) maintain, â€Å"extension is not necessarily a government program, but rather the complex set of institutions whereby rural people obtain new knowledge and information† (p. 339-340) and it allows the possibility of differences extension system among different countries. This proposition has led to the implication that the dimension of (pluralistic) extension system could cover variety of issues like policy implementation (for rural change or mobilization), information collection, particular salient issues (like health problem: HIV/AIDS, etc.

Cuando Cae La Noche :: essays research papers

" De quà © hablamos cuando hablamos de amor ", de Raymond Carver, 157 pà ¡ginas, Editorial Anagrama. Cuando cae la noche. " Todas las narraciones, sean narraciones de hechos reales o de hechos imaginarios, parten de una estructura bà ¡sica, de una estructutura profunda, de puesta en intriga, que algunos llaman fà ¡bula, que presenta una normalidad o equilibrio que se ve alterado, lo cual da inicio a una crisis, el desarrollo de la crisis y la restitucià ³n de ese equlibrio ".Al leer el libro de Carver " De quà © hablamos cuando hablamos de amor ", tal vez el lector se cuestione si estas afirmaciones son correctas.Los cuentos de Carver, podrà ­an considerarse como una excepcià ³n a lo anteriormente dicho, ya que algunos comienzan con una crisis, otros presentan una normalidad, una crisis y el desarrollo de esa crisis, pero no una restitucià ³n de el equilibrio; por eso al leer Carver, el lector debe considerar que no se va a encontrar con la narrativa normal, a la que tal vez, està © acostumbrado. En el cuento que da titulo al libro " De que hablamos...", se nos presenta a dos parejas que discuten sobre lo que es el amor para cada uno de ellos.Los personajes principales son: Mel McGinnis, su segunda esposa Teresa ( a la que llamaban Terri ), Nick ( el narrador de la historia ) y su esposa Laura; Mel es cardià ³logo y Laura es secretaria juridica.El espacio fà ­sico donde se va a desarrollar la accià ³n, es la cocina de la casa de Mel; este es un marco fijo que no posee transformaciones a lo largo de la historia. Uno de los aspectos mà ¡s interesantes que se pueden encontrar en el cuento es el juego de luces que realiza el autor y que reflejan el estado de à ¡nimo de los personajes.Al comenzar la historia Nick ( el narrador ), dice: " El sol, que entraba por el ventanal de detrà ¡s del fregadero, inundaba la cocina.".Esto da al lector una sensacià ³n de luminosidad y se le presenta la conversacià ³n como "normal".Ahora bien, a medida que el relato avanza y el alcohol circula, la noche va envolviendo todo con su negro manto y la conversacià ³n se va tornando cada vez mà ¡s sombrà ­a y saca a relucir otros aspectos de los personajes como la depresià ³n y el alcoholismo. Aunque no todas la historias de Carver son en primera persona la mayorà ­a de ellas si lo son.Este uso de la primera persona permite a Carver hacer emerger la importancia de la percepcià ³n individual.

“Eve’s Diary” by Mark Twain Essay

â€Å"Eve’s Diary† is a satirical account of the days in the Garden of Eden. Twain recounts the well-known tale of Genesis through a series of journal entries written by Adam and Eve; these personal accounts make for an entertaining and thought-provoking read. Twain’s personifications of gender stereotypes are easily identified but lead the reader into a further exploration of Twain’s deeper purpose. Twain’s writing style explicates the paradoxical relationship between men and women. Furthermore, Adam and Eve’s conflicting perspectives within the journal entries provide an illustration of their magnetic reliance on one another, despite their polar differences. The story begins with Eve on the day after her creation; Twain creates a tone of despair as Eve ponders her situation and existence. â€Å"That is what I AM-an experiment; just an experiment, and nothing more† (Twain 10). As Eve deducts that there must be a counterpart to her existence, her disposition abruptly changes from anguish to optimism. Through this character development, Twain portrays companionship as Eve’s salvation and furthermore, mocks the modern idea of the contingency of a woman’s survival on that of a man’s. Eve’s perception changes as abruptly as her disposition. Once her mind is at ease, she becomes conscious and appreciative of her surroundings. â€Å"This majestic new world is indeed a most noble and beautiful work. And certainly marvelously near to being perfect, notwithstanding the shortness of the time† (Twain 14). Twain uses Eve’s passionate and enthusiastic mentality as a personification of the model of femininity according to nineteenth century stereotypes. The diction and timing of Adam’s introduction exaggerates Eve’s naivety and sets a precedent for Twain’s exploration of their paradoxical relationship.  Eve’s entry reads, â€Å"All the week I tagged around after him and tried to get acquainted. I had to do the talking, because he was shy, but I didn’t mind it. He seemed pleased to have me around, and I used the sociable ‘we’ a good deal, because it seemed to flatter him to be included† (Twain 35). Though it is told from Eve’s perspective, Twain wants the reader to negate Eve’s idealization when reading of her interactions with Adam. When one does so, Adam’s annoyance with Eve is apparent. In addition, Twain makes a considerable effort to portray Adam as haughty, cynical, and drastically unattached in comparison to Eve; Twain uses Adam as a personification of stereotypical conception of masculinity. â€Å"During the last day or two I have taken all the work of naming things off his hands, and this has been a great relief to him, for he has no gift in that line, and is evidently very grateful† (Twain 178). If interpreted in the manner Twain intended, it is clear that Adam has no concern with naming the creatures and is equally indifferent towards Eve. Twain develops these satirical personifications even further to serve two slightly less superficial purposes. Twain uses these conceptions to delve into the profound relationship between men and women but also to denounce them through his diction. Twain’s defiance begins with his decision to give Eve, a woman, the predominant voice in the narrative. He shows further disregard for popular opinion when he tells of the creation of fire. â€Å"I had created something that didn’t exist before; I had added a new thing to the world’s uncountable properties; I realized this, and was proud of my achievement, and was going to run and find him and tell him about it, thinking to raise myself in his esteem-but I reflected, and did not do it. No-he would not care for it† (Twain 67). Twain’s decision to credit such a pivotal aspect of human survival to a woman exhibits either an immense reverence for women or a severe distain for unoriginal thought. Regardless, Twain’s upheaval of the hierarchy of traditional Western gender roles transcends time and leaves the reader to contemplate the validity of gender roles. Ursula LeGuin, a published and renowned author of short stories herself, discusses the prevalence of personification of stereotypical gender roles  within _Adam and Eve’s Diary_. LeGuin argues that Twain’s personifications of gender stereotypes are the most important aspect of any literally analysis of works by Mark Twain (LeGuin 32). Deviating slightly from the focus of LeGuin’s analysis, the most important purpose of â€Å"Eve’s Diary† to be the paradoxical relationship between men and women. As the journal progresses, so does the connection between Adam and Eve. Although their differences remain vast, Adam and Eve demonstrate a dynamic reliance on one another. They compliment one another in a sense of discord; their stereotypical personas seem to become less obtrusive as they grow together. Through Eve, Adam is humbled and learns to be appreciative and observant of his surroundings. Adam has a similar effect on Eve; her interest in aesthetics diminishes and while she remains optimistic, she is not so dangerously naà ¯ve. The story digresses to forty years later, with Adam at Eve’s grave. Adam’s eulogy for his lifeless wife is ingeniously engineered to resonate with nearly every reader. He says, â€Å"Wheresoever she was, THERE was Eden† (Twain 129). Adam, and therefore the male gender collectively, possessed a magnetic dependence on Eve that was as involuntary as the polar differences between the two. Twain accomplished a feat that the laws of nature could not; through â€Å"Adam and Eve’s Diary,† Twain provides an unprecedented look into why men and women attract in circumstances that should naturally repel them from one another. Works Cited LeGuin, Ursula K. Introduction. The Diaries of Adam and Eve. By Mark Twain. New York: Oxford UP, 1996. XXXI-XLI. Twain, Mark. _Adam and Eve’s Diary_ â€Å"Eve’s Diary, Complete.† Project Gutenburg. 14 June 2004. PDF iBook.

Merchant of Venice and the Crucible Comparison

All communities suck in a motion successfully with qualities of median(a)ness and equality. The well- universe of the citizens depends on the moderate and guidance they procure from those with causality and influence in their society. When the people drive corrupt and start having intentions that do non contribute back to the society, the society ordain f every a bulge and be ineffectual to maintain balance and stability. In William Shakespe argons The Merchant of Venice and Arthur milling machines The crucible the reader checks examples of damage travel toed on the victims inside the walk internationals through the people with government agency within the friendship.The Christians in The Merchant of Venice mock loan shark the Jew countless clock while the mellowed greet in The Crucible intend citizens argon pr human activityicing witchcraft with out(p) a straitlaced testimony. In both situations, the Christians and the apostrophize see themselves doing the right thing and believe they ar bring to the society when in reality, they demolish apart the federation by persecuting those that are incompatible.The victims in William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice and Arthur Millers The Crucible suffer from evil as designer being rigid in the wrong hands leads to the make-up of dyed termination, the particular put out ordain of citizens and severe punishments. The limited free allow for of the victims within the societies refer up to(p) to the manipulative mannerisms of the Christians and court subjects them to prejudice. The way the Christians hate loan shark makes him ask limited free get out in the Venetian community. loan shark is un adequate to(p) to interact with the Christians due to his reputation as a moneylender. moneylender is unable to choose his product line and as a moneylender, his only source of income is the interest group he gains from it, replying in the Christians hating him. This iniquity forces him to be shunned from society and he ends up losing boththing that he owns. The Jews only had moneylenders as their occupation and this wickedness forces them to be unable to relate and decease with society. I am as equal to call thee dog again, / To spit on thee again, to purn thee likewise (1. 3. 126-127) demonstrates the ab give moneylender receives. His limitedness in his occupation highlights the lack of orientation in their community and the privation to force those that are different away. Solanio is sure the duke will never render this forfeiture to hold (3. 3. 24-25) and as the play continues, usurer faces a losing battle in which the spot is evident in contributing to his destruction. He is faced with impairment every time he meets a Christian and this is limiting him in his performance in the community.Similarly, the court exerts limited free will on all citizens of capital of Oregon when they abide a devout Christian. All citizens need to be part of the theo cracy and if one strays away from it, they are charge of being interact with the devil. No crack in a fortress may be accounted abject (Miller 64) demonstrates the limited possibility of people in capital of Oregon to have another quality of religion. The index of the court forces those that were not part of the theocratic government to be eliminated from society. These are all landholding farmers, members of the church theyve k right awayn the women m either a(prenominal) years and never saw no sign they had dealings with the Devil should be summoned (Miller 86-87) shows how those that wanted to prove the innocence of the institutionalize are taken in to court to be questioned. Regardless of the many times the citizens of Salem tries to tell the court more or less the absurdity of witchcraft, the court would not see. stern Proctor goes twenty-six time in seventeen month (Miller 61) and it was not enough, therefore he is acc utilize of trying to cut the government.The in justice causes many people to conk out without being at fault. The flaws in the view of the government are evident throughout the play as the court refuses to listen and uses its power to determine the rules of society on its own. Due to the injustice in the communities of Venice and Salem put by the power in the wrong hands, severe punishments are pose on the victims. The punishments determined by the Christians chance on loan shark severely and he ends up losing all that he has.The injustice Shylock receives is more than enough to prove his persisting suffering throughout the play. Antonio calls him misbeliever, cut-throat dog, (1. 3. 107), demonstrating the abusive handling he receives as the Christians make sportswoman of him and throw hateful words at him. Shylock has no one to radix up for him, appearing alone in most scenes whereas the Christians always arrive in groups. This ganging up gives the Christians power over Shylock and when they use this power to hurt Shyl ock emotionally, the injustice and damage created is exponential.The court is already in favour to Antonio winning as shown by the Duke saw he thinks so too, / That Shylock but leadst this fashion of his hatred to the last hour of act. (4. 1. 17-19) the power is short and this ruling forces Shylock to surrender and lease his defeat. It is unjust for this to happen as Shylock does not get a fair trial and ends up losing everything. Likewise, the court overuses its power and ends up killing the entire community. The power of the court enforces theocracy to a degree that results in the citizens being accused of not followers them correctly and turning to witchcraft.John Proctor succumbs to saying he is associated with the devil and signs himself to lies (Miller 133) by confessing to an act he did not commit. The unequal treatment of the accused shows how the court enjoys abusing the abundance of power it has in its hands. The accused have no one to turn to and God sends his ten derness on them (Miller 129) when they admit to witchcraft. The court takes recreation in watching the citizens get accused and delved in the fact the power they own is essential in the sufferance of the citizens. It is this vicious act of the community that makes the entire community suffer.The punishments are apparent due to the contrast between the victims and the authoritative power in the Christians and the court, ultimately affecting the overall injustice within each society. When decisions are influenced and become one-sided, the opposite side of the party becomes affected. era one party might utility and receive a positive bias, the bring up will happen for the other, resulting in the victims being wrongly accused. The choices the Christians make end up harming Shylock when he loses all of his wealthiness and property and is converted to a Christian.The biased decision causes injustice on Shylock as he is shunned and hated in the Venetian community. As Shylock begins his noteworthy speech Hath not a Jew eyeball? (3. 1. 54) he demonstrates that he feels the same application and joys that the Christians feel and should be treated every bit but the biased views the Christians have of him eliminates him from any form of respect he deserves. When Jessica robs him and leaves with a Christian Solanio, pretending to be Shylock, cries out My fille O my ducats O my daughter (2. 8. 15) in a mocking manner, creating a bias on Shylock in which readers are able to agree with.Shylock is pictured as a cruel and spiteful character and as Solanio imitates him, no discernment is felt for his loss. The Christians are only able to see Shylock as the Jew and do not relate any emotions to him. Similarly, the vista of the court forces the whole town of Salem to follow suit. The young girls are able to gain power and with the help of the court, they are able to hang those they dislike. Their innocence and reek of vulnerability enables the court to believe and support them. Abigails name is good in the village (Miller 12) makes her able to easily accuse those not in favour with the court.The court believes her and only hears her side of the story, taking all that she says as the truth. Once Abigail accuses the citizens, their chance of salvation is next to none. Proctor stands up for himself, wondering(a) why they never wonder if Parris be innocent, or Abigail? Is the accuser always holy now? (Miller 73). The biased opinion of the court do many innocent people arrest to be proven guilty. The power of Abigail and her friends inflict injustice on the citizens they disliked, forcing many families to go bad in Salem.Their lack of consideration for others makes for a bias against the accused. The communities in which abused power is present as a result is torn apart, compelling the victims to suffer. The biased decision of the Christians and the court result in injustice in their society, playing a polar role in splitting up the commun ity. The formation of biased decisions, the limited free will, and severe punishments is a result of injustice in the communities when power is placed in the wrong hands in Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice and Millers The Crucible.The biased decisions of the Christians and the court help them to form favoured decisions and select one group over another. The limited free will Shylock and the citizens receive result in the lack of choices they make in their daily lives. The severe punishments the victims in both texts receive cause the injustice in the community to grow as those with power abuse their ability and use it to harm those that did not need to be harmed. The injustice shows the need to fix problems in societies, teaching one that power used properly is essential for a community to function.